In this way, the author explains, the British Government had in essence sentenced to death without trial German officers who had been received by them as prisoners of war., Brigadier Geoffrey Musson, who delivered these Cossacks to the Soviets, told the author that he received oral orders from his superiors compelling him to return all the Cossacks under his control, regardless of their actual nationality. The opening of the museum took place on June 22, 2009. Experiences of immigration to the UK. The Cap Arcona burning. Along with them, he also handed over many wagonloads of old people, women and children who did not want to return to their native Cossack rivers. In the immediate aftermath of the war, Britains focus was on attempting to prosecute Nazi war criminals, and investigations into British misadventures were sidelined. Indeed, once the camp was emptied in mid-April, the local politicians no longer concerned themselves with the fate of the prisoners now held in squalor aboard the Cap Arcona in nearby Neustadt Bay. [4] General Poliakov and Colonel Chereshneff referred to it as the "massacre of Cossacks at Lienz". At the Bucharest People's Tribunal, set up in 1946 by the new Romanian government in conjunction with the Allied Control Council, one of the charges brought against Marshal Ion Antonescu, the Governor of Transnistria, Gheorghe Alexianu, and the commander of the Odessa garrison, General Nicolae Macici, was "the organization of repressions against the civilian population of Odessa autumn of 1941". [1] A month later, a death march of 10,000 Jews was organized in three concentration camps in Golta. In the absence of another option, Kaufmann made arrangements in March 1945 to requisition a passenger liner to act as a temporary holding camp for Neuengammes prisoners. Field Marshal Montgomery followed suit and in the Fall of 1945 ordered that force no longer be used for the repatriation of Soviet nationals. 1945/10/17. Tel: +44 (0)20 8312 6516 (during Library opening hours). Macici died in prison in 1950. Find the obituary of Thomas J. Hancock (1945 - 2020) from Hicksville, NY. Many died of hunger and cold along the way. Art. This group, known as Cossachi Stan migrated between southern Ukraine, Novogrudek (Byelorussia), Tolmezzo (Italy) and was forced to withdraw to Lienz in Allied-occupied Austria, at the close of the war. [53] As it was, the British POWs in Soviet hands were returned to the United Kingdom "humanely and expeditiously". Queen Elizabeth I. Southampton. Along with about 100,000 Georgians, various Cossack tribes had fought with the Germans against the Soviets and, with their families, retreated westward as the Third Reich collapsed. Britains SOE (Special Operations Executive, an organization created in November 1940 to encourage, direct, and supply resistance groups in countries occupied by the Axis) had distributed leaflets to Russians in the German armed forces promising that Russians surrendering to the Allies could receive political asylum if they wished. The Plots can only be approximate. 1945/10/18. The situation in the ghetto of Domanevka and other ghettos in Transnistria improved in 1943 after the Jews began to receive assistance from Jewish organizations in Romania. We were. Johan van Oldenbarnveldt (M.S) Southampton. More than 70 years on from the tragic sinking, crucial questions remain regarding the role of British forces in the final days of the Second World War. [13] There, they fought the partisans and persecuted the local population, committing numerous atrocities. The military police then used tear gas, and, half-dazed, the prisoners were driven under heavy guard to the harbor where they were forced to board a Soviet vessel. Taken hostage, which, if repeated such acts, will be shot together with their families. Tak duo nowych pozycji jeszcze u nas nie byo . After an uneventful peacetime career, she was on her last voyage from South America in 1939 when war broke out. It is the unedited footage taken by an American army camera unit at a prisoner of war camp in southern Germany in February 1946. [13], Some Jews were sent to work in the villages, and about half of them survived the occupation. [13][14][15], From January 12 to February 20, 1942, the remaining 19,582 Jews were deported to Berezivka Raion of Odessa Oblast. Take a closer look with the unique Van de Velde drawings collection, Join us live online as we attempt to sight the new crescent Moon which signals the start of Ramadan in the UK, Search our online database and exploreour objects, paintings, archives and library collectionsfrom home, Come behind the scenes at our state-of-the-art conservation studio, Visit the world's largest maritime library and archive collection at the National Maritime Museum, The Van de Veldes: Greenwich, Art and the Sea, Astronomy Photographer of the Year exhibition, A Sea of Drawings: the art of the Van de Veldes, The Prince Philip Maritime Collections Centre. It was not until 1942 when Ostministerium openly began employing Cossack migrs for propaganda and administrative purposes. It was one of the worst massacres in the Ukrainian territory. [37] The 1970s were a period when dtente had become fashionable in some quarters and many on the right believed the West was losing the Cold War. Make a life-giving gesture The War Office held a different view. Find the obituary of Theodore Tritaris (1945 - 2020) from Hicksville, NY. On June 24, 1944, Patrick Dean, the Assistant Legal Adviser of the Foreign Office, declared: In due course all those with whom the Soviet authorities desire to deal must be handed over to them, and we are not concerned with the fact that they may be shot or otherwise more harshly dealt with than they might be under English law.. [41] Macmillan seems to have been taken by surprise by Kennedy's questions, and the defensive tone of his answers certainly gave public the impression that he had something to hide. "[39] In May 1983, Tolstoy published an article "The Klagenfurt Conspiracy" in Encounter magazine alleging a conspiracy by Harold Macmillan, the British "resident minister" for the Mediterranean, Field Marshal Harold Alexander and other British officials to hand over the Cossacks. [20], In January 2015, the authorities of the Italian town of Ceriano Laghetto, in the province of Monza-e-Brianza in the Lombardy region, named a city square "Martyrs Square of Odessa" in memory of the victims of the occupation regimes in Odessa: Jews killed October 2224, 1941, as well as anti-Maidan activists, rescuers and accidental victims who died on May 2, 2014, in the Odessa Trade Union House. Ultimately, the fate of the Cap Arcona and its passengers was a tragic consequence of the fog of war. Many men, women, and children were sent to the Gulag camps, and many were worked to death. During the first week of Romanian occupation of Odessa, the city lost about 10% of its inhabitants. Some specific political crimes were omitted from amnesty: people convicted under Section 58.1(c) of the Criminal Code, stipulating that in the event of a military man escaping Russia, every adult member of his family who abetted the escape or who knew of it would be subject to five to ten years' imprisonment; every dependent who did not know of the escape would be subject to five years' Siberian exile.[30]. Responding to a plea that mercy be shown to those who did not wish to return to the Soviet Union, Eden wrote that the provisions of the Crimean [Yalta] Agreement had to be upheld, for we cannot afford to be sentimental.. [11], It was in the context of the wish to remain on good terms with Stalin that, according to Edward Peterson, the US chose to hand over several hundred thousand German prisoners to the Soviet Union in May 1945 as a "gesture of friendship". The Ormonde. In March 1947, the Ormonde set sail from Jamaica to Liverpool to bring people hoping for a better future. [19][unreliable source?] Click Continue below to continue processing your order with the Library team. [20], The British transported the Cossacks to a prison where they were handed over to the waiting Soviets. British officers informed these men that they were requested to attend a meeting with Field Marshal Alexander. Later, a ghetto was arranged in Odessa itself. [39] John Joliffe, a conservative Catholic British intellectual whose fund-raising help build the monument accused "the British government and their advisors of merciless inhumanity", and ignoring the fact that Churchill was a Conservative went on to blame the repatriations on "the hypocrisy and feebleness of progressive leftists who turned a blind eye to the communist enslavement of Eastern Europe. [8], On October 23, an order was issued threatening all Jews with death on the spot and ordering them to report to the village of Dalnyk on October 24. ISBN: 0-684-15635-0. She was immediately requisitioned as a troopship and during her war service, 'Almanzora' made many voyages to South and East Africa, later taking part in the Sicilian landings. SS Almanzora during the Second World War 1939-1945. The subject of the repatriation was largely unknown in the English-speaking world until 1974 when Lord Bethell published his book The Last Secret, which was also turned into a BBC documentary that aired the same year. To put myself in a wider group, I got my . For example, at the close of the war, around 50,000 Cossacks were in British-controlled parts of Austria. [27], Several hundred Cossacks were repatriated to the Soviet Union from camps close to Venice in 1947. Some claimed the protection of the Geneva Convention regarding prisoners of war. Cherished Grand [54] By contrast, Ian Mitchell in his 1997 book The Cost of a Reputation: Aldington versus Tolstoy: the Causes, Course and Consequences of the Notorious Libel Case argued that there had been an "Establishment" conspiracy against Tolstoy, claiming that the Foreign Office and the Defence ministry had deprived Tolstoy of documents that had been helpful to him at this trial. In the town of Tristach, Austria, there was a memorial commemorating General von Pannwitz and the soldiers of the XV SS Cossack Cavalry Corps who were killed in action or died as POWs. A year later Nicholas Bethells The Last Secret: Forcible Repatriation to Russia 19447 (Basic Books, 1974) was published in Britain and the United States. As the German Reich contracted, British forces remained heavily engaged in an important battle to reach their objective on Germanys north coast. In 18 months, almost all the prisoners of Golta died. For many years this unique piece of film was not available for public inspection. However, nothing in the agreement on POWs referred to the return of Soviet citizens who were unwilling to go back to the USSR. calphalon knife sharpener; international gift ideas. [32] In response, Aldington sued Watts for libel, and Tolstoy insisted on being included as a defendant, seeing a chance to promote his cause. The two volumes of Velikoe Predatelstvo were first translated into English in 2015 and 2018. As the massacres occurred, Jews from surrounding villages were interned in Odessa and Romanian concentration camps set up in the surrounding areas. By late June the British Foreign Office decided to repatriate all Russian POWs, callously disregarding the consequences of such a policy (early in the war Stalin had made it clear that any Soviet citizens who were even temporarily out of Communist control would be regarded as traitors. On October 16, following a two-month siege of Odessa, the Germans and Romanians captured the city. Soviet Repatriation Commissions were established throughout Western Europe, staffed by agents of the NKVD and SMERSH. The agreed upon definition of a Soviet citizen was a person born or resident within the pre-September 1, 1939, boundaries of Russia (who had not acquired another nationality or a Nanssen passport, which would render the subject Stateless) By this definition thousands who had fled Russia during the Civil War and who found themselves under British control at the end of the Second World War should not have been sent to the USSR. [42] In 1986, Tolstoy followed up his 1983 article with the book The Minister and the Massacres alleging a conspiracy led by Macmillan to deliberately hand over refugees from the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia knowing full well they would be executed. Several hundred Jews who were hiding in Odessa itself also survived. They raided the streets and markets of the city and suburbs, and people who knew nothing of the bombing were shot on sight against fences or the walls of houses. On the contrary, the Soviet side at first said and wrote that their concern was Soviet citizens. Jews participated in the struggle of the Odessa underground and constituted a significant part of the guerrilla units, based in the Odessa catacombs.[3]. 1 All men of Jewish origin, aged 18 to 50 years, are obliged within 48 hours from the date of publication of this order to report to the city prison (Bolshefontanskaya road), having with them the essentials for existence. [53] Morris argued that Churchill had a well founded belief that if the British granted asylum to the Cossacks, then the Soviets would not return the British POWs. Unbeknownst to them, they were instead being sent to the Soviet Union. Responsibility for the explosion was placed on the Jews and Communists. Upon discovering that they would be repatriated, many escaped, some probably aided by their Allied captors;[11] some passively resisted, and others killed themselves. "[53], In 1997, Booker published his book A Looking Glass Tragedy, in which he wrote: "there was almost no part of the story which we found to be free from serious error, even to the point where atrocities and massacres described at length were found not to have taken place at all. Dowsett Leonard. In 1986, the Federation of Conservative Students in their magazine published a cover story with a photo of Macmillan from 1945 with the question "Guilty of War Crimes? William Dritschilo described the events at Lienz in Lienz Cossacks, his novelization of the Cossack experience of the 20th century. [31] The first book written about the subject appears to have been Kontra by the Polish writer Jzef Mackiewicz, which was published in Polish in London in 1957. From December 20, 1941, until January 15, 1942, each of them was shot by a team of the Einsatzgruppe SS, Romanian soldiers, Ukrainian police and local German colonists.[3][4]. [1], Most of those Cossacks and Russians fought the Allies, specifically the Soviets, in service to the Axis powers, yet the repatriations included non-combatant civilians as well. Many of the gravestones mark mass graves holding unknown numbers. [32], In response to The Minister and the Massacres, the British historian Robert Knight in his 1986 article "Harold Macmillan and the Cossacks: Was There A Klagenfurt Conspiracy?" British soldiers [armed] with pistols and clubs began using their clubs, aiming at the heads of the prisoners. Most of the other Cossack and German officers of the Cossack units were also executed. On 28 May 1945 the British Army arrived at Camp Peggetz, in Lienz, where there were 2,479 Cossacks, including 2,201 officers and soldiers. Harald Stadler/Martin Kofler/Karl C.Berger (2005). After Yalta, Churchill questioned Stalin, asking, "Did the Cossacks and other minorities fight against us?" By then BritishCossack relationships were friendly to the extent that many on both sides had developed feelings for one another. The next day, the prisoners were shot, placed in the remaining two barracks, and in one of the barracks grenades were thrown.[10]. The first two were shot on July 1, 1946. This great hero, monuments to whom will in time cover all England, ordered that they, too, be surrendered to their deaths. Coordinates: .mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}462758N 304359E / 46.466N 30.733E / 46.466; 30.733, The Odessa massacre was the mass murder of the Jewish population of Odessa and surrounding towns in the Transnistria Governorate during the autumn of 1941 and the winter of 1942 while it was under Romanian control. In response to the appeal of the verdict filed by the son of Alexianu, on November 5, 2006, Bucharest Court of Appeal confirmed the verdict of war criminals to death, dated May 17, 1946. 1945/12/20. [40] In his article, Tolstoy alleged that on 13 May 1945 in a meeting in the Austrian city of Klagenfurt that Macmillan gave the orders to repatriate all Cossacks regardless if they were Soviet citizens or not. Morris argued that if Britain broke the terms of the Yalta Agreement by granting asylum to the Cossacks, then the Soviet Union might likewise break the terms of the Yalta agreement and refuse to repatriate the hundreds of thousands of British POWs whom the Germans had concentrated in POW camps in eastern Germany (it was German policy to build POW camps in eastern Germany as it made it more difficult for POWs who escaped to reach western Europe). Many were forced laborers who had been working on the Atlantic Wall for the Todt Organization. [12], Although the agreement for the deportation of all "Soviet" citizens did not include White Russian emigres who had fled during the Bolshevik Revolution before the establishment of the USSR, all Cossack prisoners of war were later demanded. The Cossacks moved there and established garrisons and settlements, requisitioning houses by evicting the inhabitants, with several stanitsas and posts, their administration, churches, schools and military units. Eventually they were admitted to displaced persons camps under assumed names and nationalities; many emigrated to the US per the Displaced Persons Act. On 11 December 1984, Macmillan was interviewed on the BBC by Ludovic Kennedy and during the course of the interview Kennedy asked several questions about the Cossack repatriation in 1945. 1945/10/31. Second, by halting the Soviets here, British forces would be able to liberate Denmark and restore the Danish monarchy. [34] Though Solzhenitsyn in The Gulag Archipelago did not deal specifically with the repatriation of the Cossacks, instead dealing with the repatriation of people to the Soviet Union in general, the book increased popular interest in the subject, as did his claim that Anglo-American policy towards the Soviet Union was driven in a fundamentally sinister and conspiratorial way, punishing the alleged friends of the West such as the Vlasov Army and the Cossacks while rewarding its enemies such as the Soviet Union. The Museum of the Holocaust in Odessa was created in accordance with the decision of the Council of the Odessa Regional Association of Jews, former prisoners of the ghetto and Nazi concentration camps. British Foreign Minister Anthony Eden, who, Tolstoy reports, was responsible for initiating the whole policy, first reached agreement with the Soviets on repatriation at the Moscow Conference in October 1944. Of those Cossacks who escaped repatriation, many hid in forests and mountainsides, some were hidden by the local German populace, but most hid in different identities as Latvians, Poles, Yugoslavians, Turks, Armenians and even Ethiopians. Gen. Helmuth von Pannwitz of the Wehrmacht, who was instrumental in the formation and leadership of the Cossacks taken from German POW camps to fight the Soviets, decided to share the Cossacks' Soviet repatriation and was executed for war crimes, along with five Cossack generals and atamans in Moscow in 1947. National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, London, Overall model: 552 x 1890 x 237 mm; Base: 140 x 2015 x 390 mm. As they were being rounded up, many displayed documents proving that they were citizens of France, Italy, Yugoslavia, or registered stateless with Nanssen passports issued by the League of Nations. During 1945, the Soviet Army overran, in two sequences, German camps that held US POWs. The British then hit them with rifle butts until they lay unconscious, and threw them, like sacks of potatoes, in the trucks. This ship was a tanker, and we went to America to bring back high-octane petrol, for use in our aircraft. This indicated that the Arcona was intended as a temporary extension of the original Neuengamme, albeit one that was largely out of sight and out of mind. The siege of Odessa, known to the Soviets as the defence of Odessa, lasted from 8 August until 16 October 1941, during the early phase of Operation Barbarossa, the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union during World War II.. Odessa was a port on the Black Sea in the Ukrainian SSR.On 22 June 1941, the Axis powers invaded the Soviet Union. It was one of the worst massacres in the Ukrainian territory. The 2018 tragicomic Romanian film I Do Not Care If We Go Down in History as Barbarians deals with the massacre and historical memory among modern Romanians. Despite this flaw, Tolstoy has written a book which sheds considerable new light on one of the most tragic episodes of the twentieth century. As the Soviets emerged victorious in the civil war, many Cossack veterans, fearing reprisals and the Bolsheviks de-Cossackization policies, fled abroad to countries in Central and Western Europe. Features of the Holocaust in Odessa, Official site of the Museum of the Holocaust in Odessa, Book-trailer literary and documentary novel, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1941_Odessa_massacre&oldid=1138695478, This page was last edited on 11 February 2023, at 02:25. 2013-2023 INSTITUTE FOR HISTORICAL REVIEW. Knight argued that the forced repatriations in Austria undertaken in May 1945 were at least in part an effort to calm down a very tense situation. [54] The Cost of a Reputation was a book privately printed and paid for by Lord Portsmouth, an admirer of Tolstoy. [56] Thorpe further argued that Tolstoy seemed unaware of the way the British used the term "White Russian" in World War Two and as he uses the term "White Russian" in the more limited sense, he assumes that the British were consciously repatriating people whom they knew were not Soviet citizens.[57]. Coverers, as well as persons who know about this and do not report, are punishable by death. An estimated 4,000 prisoners perished. From 1943 until early 1947 Western countries, led by Britain and the United States, returned nearly two and a half million prisoners of war and refugees to the Soviet Union, regardless of their individual wishes. When they were released, they discovered that their houses had been occupied and their property plundered. The repatriations were agreed to in the Yalta Conference; Joseph Stalin claimed the prisoners were Soviet citizens as of 1939, although many of them had left Russia before or soon after the end of the Russian Civil War or had been born abroad, hence never holding Soviet citizenship. It is located in the northeast of the province between the areas of Los Vlez and the Sierra de los Fibrales. [50] In a column published in the Sunday Times on 21 October 1990, Robert Harris accused the Cowgill committee of a "whitewash", and maintained that Tolstoy's claims that Britain had willfully sent thousands of people to their deaths in the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia was still correct. As of 2018, it was estimated that up to 30,000 people, mostly Ukrainian Jews, were murdered in the actual massacre, which occurred October 2223, 1941. As Yugoslavia was a Soviet ally in 1945, there were very real fears at the time that an Anglo-Yugoslav war could easily escalate into an Anglo-Soviet war. [34] Solzhenitsyn describes the forced repatriation of the Cossacks by Winston Churchill as follows: "He turned over to the Soviet command the Cossack corps of 90,000 men. Art. Others hoped to be resettled in a non-Communist part of the world. [49], After four years of investigation, in October 1990 the Cowgill committee published its report, The Repatriations from Austria in 1945 whose conclusions largely echoed those reached by Knight in 1986 that British policy in Austria was largely governed by preparations for a possible war with Yugoslavia and perhaps the Soviet Union as well. The SS Ormonde was an ex-troop ship that arrived in Britain with a significant numbers of Caribbean migrants. [54] Booker described the British media as suffering from a "Cleverdick Culture", accusing most journalists of being overtly motivated by the need to increase sales in a very competitive business via sensationalistic stories intended to promote public outrage and of being excessively credulous, especially about topics in which the journalists knew little, thus leading journalists to accept the Tolstoy thesis uncritically. Beloved husband of Carolyn. [32] The way in which the Ministry of Defence supplied Aldington with certain documents that were denied to Tolstoy has been an especially controversial aspect of the trial, and Tolstoy continues to maintain that he was a victim of "the Establishment". We use cookies to ensure you have the best browsing experience and to help us improve our website. The S. S. Almanzora (HMT) [His Majesty's Transport] is a dirty old troop-ship from the first war, painted grey it has one funnel & is not very big. [39] The "one nation conservatives" such as Macmillan were often disparaged as the "wets" by the so-called "drys" who represented the right-wing of the Conservative Party. [51] Lunghi who worked closely with the "very ruthless" General Filipp Golikov recalled in an interview on 19 March 2009: "In Moscow, as among most people who had knowledge and experience of Russia, we were appalled to learn rather late in the day that we were forcibly returning White Russians and others who did not hold Soviet citizenship to the Soviet Union. The event was documented in publications such as Nicholas Bethell's The Last Secret: The Delivery to Stalin of Over Two Million Russians by Britain and the United States (1974). Before the war, Odessa had a large Jewish population of approximately 200,000, or 30% of the city's total population. Random House. From that day on, the entire Jewish population of the city was sent to concentration camps, organized by Romanians in the countryside, primarily to the village of Bogdanovka (now in the Mykolayiv region). Want to search our collection? In early 1943, most of the Cossack units fighting with the German Army were consolidated into the First Cossack Cavalry Division under the command of General Helmuth von Pannwitz. They were sent to various military headquarters and Gendarmerie stations for "registration", where they were detained for different lengths of time. The disaster has long been sensationalised by the print media. Nevertheless, the prisoner hierarchy continued on board the ship. The passenger list informs us that 241 people made the journey, including eleven stowaways and six distressed seamen. To achieve this, Lbeck on the Baltic coast was considered the strategic goal. They are made by joining-up positions on successive days, and sometimes positions are not given. [40] As Macmillan went on to serve as prime minister between 1957 and 1963, Tolstoy's allegations attracted tremendous attention in Britain while also causing immense controversy. In Berezivka, groups were forced to walk to Domanevka, Bogdanovka, Golta and other concentration camps. [6], The Cossacks who remained in Russia endured more than a decade of continual repression, e.g., the portioning of the lands of the Terek, Ural and Semirechye hosts, forced cultural assimilation and repression of the Russian Orthodox Church, deportation and, ultimately, the Soviet famine of 193233. Despite stiff protests, the military was unable to prevail upon the Foreign Office to reverse its unilateral decision to return all Russians to Soviet authorities. [5], The Russian Cossacks of XV Cossack Cavalry Corps, stationed in Yugoslavia since 1943, were part of the column headed for Austria that would take part in the Bleiburg repatriations, and they are estimated to have numbered in the thousands. Search here. Stalin replied, "They fought with ferocity, not to say savagery, for the Germans". A breakdown of efficient communication and intelligence sharing meant that frontline forces were often ill-prepared for the actual situation ahead of them. The Cossack officers, more politically aware than the enlisted men, expected that repatriation to the USSR would be their ultimate fate. Later, King Michael commuted Macici's death sentence to life imprisonment. Tolstoy believed that the Allied diplomats wanted to continue to co-operate with the Soviets in building a new post-war world order. The explosions in Odessa that destroyed the newly occupied buildings, killing both Rumanian and German military staffs, had two outcomes for the Jews of Odessa. Local politicians, in particular Nazi Gauleiter Karl Kaufmann, had developed close business links with local industrialists and supplying slave labour from the camp to nearby businesses became a profitable enterprise. [32] Tolstoy retained a loyal set of defenders consisting of the Conservative MP Bernard Braine, the philosopher Roger Scruton, the journalist Chapman Pincher, the writer Nigel Nicolson, Lord Cranborne and from farther afield Solzhenitsyn, who was living in exile in the United States at the time. There, near Lienz, the British Army kept the Cossacks in a hastily established camp. [46] Cowgill believed that the honour of the British Army had been smeared, but Booker was a supporter of Tolstoy when he joined the committee in 1986. As they made their final descent, the airmen likely believed they were attacking bona fide hostile targets. [34] The subject of the repatriations in 1945 were used by a variety of right-wing authors in the 1970s-1980s as a symbol of both of the malevolence of the Soviet Union and of a "craven" policy towards the Soviet Union alleged to have been pursued by the successive American and British governments since the Second World War. The Foreign Office did what it could to suppress news of the suicides because, warned Patrick Dean, these suicides might possibly cause political trouble [in Britain]., British officers who delivered prisoners to Soviet ports, such as Murmansk and Odessa, witnessed NKVD execution squads murder Russians as they left ship.

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