Justices must serve an additional eight years to break the record set by Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., who retired in 1932 at the age of 90. console.log('PUB-GDPR-CHECK oneTrustCookie matches: ', matches); Appointed judges are appointed for life, so it is possible that 'stitle' : 'Judge races Commentary ODLAND 160610 EC' , While Barrett is the first woman to serve on the Supreme Court, she is not the first to do so. Judges are given lifetime appointments, limiting the political pressure they can face. var _regex = /([^=&/<>()[].,;:s@"]+(.[^=&/<>()[].,;:s@"]+)*)@(([[0-9]{1,3}.[0-9]{1,3}.[0-9]{1,3}.[0-9]{1,3}])|(([a-zA-Z-0-9]+. Finally, electing judges can lead to greater public engagement in the judicial process. Your Child", "Spanking Your Kids: Discipline or Abuse", and The Pros and Cons of Investing in an Expensive Home: Is It Worth the Cost? The consent submitted will only be used for data processing originating from this website. Catholics have argued that she will be influenced by their faith in her decisions on abortion and birth control. How close the electoral connection should be between the populace and its leadership has been debated down through the ages. This way, it reduces the risk of making decisions that are predetermined by political considerations rather than guided by law and judgment. Judge Salary and Benefits. January 29, 2013. pros and cons of elected and appointed judges. They do not have to think about public opinion when deciding cases. return; el.parentNode.insertBefore(s, el); They dont have to listen to the will of the people. mps.__intcode = "v2"; It also allows them to focus on their work, without having to worry about losing their jobs if they make unpopular decisions. Judges are there to interpret and apply the law, not carry out specific policies endorsed by the electorate. if (typeof(window._mpspixZ) != 'string') { As a result, even if the Supreme Court Justice makes a mistake, they cannot be removed from office. With a judicial system that is supposed to be impartial, the notion of electing judges may seem to go against this notion. Judicial appointment allows judges to make decisions they believe to be fair, regardless of whether voters agree with them. The ability to choose a judge, who will then be responsible for making decisions that affect their lives, is an empowering experience. window.location.href = `/opt-in-check?pub_referrer=${encodeURIComponent(url)}`; (t&&t instanceof Function&&t.apply&&!t[a])}var o=t("ee"),i=t(22),a="nr@original",s=Object.prototype.hasOwnProperty,c=!1;e.exports=function(t,e){function n(t,e,n,o){function nrWrapper(){var r,a,s,c;try{a=this,r=i(arguments),s="function"==typeof n?n(r,a):n||{}}catch(f){p([f,"",[r,a,o],s])}u(e+"start",[r,a,o],s);try{return c=t.apply(a,r)}catch(d){throw u(e+"err",[r,a,d],s),d}finally{u(e+"end",[r,a,c],s)}}return r(t)?t:(e||(e=""),nrWrapper[a]=t,d(t,nrWrapper),nrWrapper)}function f(t,e,o,i){o||(o="");var a,s,c,f="-"===o.charAt(0);for(c=0;c {}); A teacher walks into the Classroom and says If only Yesterday was Tomorrow Today would have been a Saturday Which Day did the Teacher make this Statement? return true; It will allow you to have a good work-life balance, including being able to maintain a relationship and raise a family. The U.S. Supreme Court is one of the world's few high courts to have life tenure. According to Article III of the Constitution, the Courts judges are required to maintain their offices during good behavior. } The Framers of the Constitution had a goal of establishing an independent judiciary without regard to political influence of the executive branch or the legislative branch. 'id' : '103706681' , // As a recent appointment to the Court, the most knowledgeable member is seen as less knowledgeable than the more senior justice. Eliminating the lifetime tenure for federal judges to a 15-year term that is not . Various concerns have also been raised about the ways in which lifetime appointment impinges on the office of Supreme Court Justices. mps._queue.mpsinit.push(function() { What is the difference between unitary and federal systems? In order to keep the public content and still have a reliable court system, there are many factors that are taken into . And the law must be interpreted and applied on strictly legal criteria, not on the basis of what the voters want. It will ensure that you do not become bored at the job. 'subtype' : 'section' , Georgia: Judges of the Probate Courts compete in partisan elections. Overall, 55% of legislative recall elections have succeeded in unseating a legislator. Globalization and technological progress now allow capital to cross borders with unprecedented ease. This could result in judges who are more inclined to favor certain groups or interests over others. They are tasked with interpreting the law and applying it to the cases before them. // var _qs = window.location.href; The con is the same, worded differently. Then figure out what the total cost of the trip would be.? Natural gas: clean, affordable, reliable energy for all! Dispersing power to appoint members of the commission across a variety of groups the Governor, legislators from both parties strengthens the commission's independence. document.addEventListener("DOMContentLoaded", function(event) { Latest answer posted December 11, 2020 at 11:00:01 AM. But judges facing elections only ruled in favor of the defendant 15 percent of that time. cEnd = document.cookie.length; Lets find out! var setAdblockerCookie = function(adblocker) { Judicial Elections: Pros & Cons of Electing Judges. const ONE_TRUST_COOKIE_NAME = 'OptanonConsent'; In addition to attacking the Justice Department, Trump has attacked the federal judiciary. But they would be limited to 18-year terms. While such steps appear innocuous, they can lead to campaigns and interest groups engaging in mudslinging, and occasionally result in a judge who weighs decisions on a political balance. Judges were given a lot of incentives to issue rulings that pleased the king in order to keep their positions. Advocates hope that the perennial issue may finally draw some attention. mpsload.src = "//" + mpsopts.host + "/fetch/ext/load-" + mpscall.site + ".js?nowrite=2"; But every coin has a flip side, and the disadvantages of judicial elections are built around the very same factors the advantages are. In all of the examples mentioned above, the. Supreme Court term limits have long been a topic of discussion. 3. In some jurisdictions, judges can be appointed or appointed through a competitive selection process. Undoubtedly there were other factors driving these decisions, and the quality of a judge is certainly not measured by how often they rule in favor of the defendant. Appealing to the public is also a double-edged sword. Should Supreme Court judges be elected or appointed? many life appointed judge should retire but remain in office past One of the most notable benefits of lifetime appointment is the ability of justices to make decisions based on their interpretation of the law without fear being swayed by public opinion. The Diane Rehm Show discusses how judicial elections and appointment processes impact fairness in state courts. Appointed judges are undemocratic. Judges are reelected to additional terms. We dont allow experts to pick presidents and members of Congress so why should we allow them to pick judges. Its time to think about a constitutional amendment limiting judicial tenure. } "updatecorrelator" : true console.log('PUB-GDPR-CHECK all blocked. Data is a real-time snapshot *Data is delayed at least 15 minutes. This system, which has worked for centuries, has proven effective. Elena Kagan was appointed to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit in May of 2017, following her appointment to the U.S. Supreme Court in 2013. Appointment-based . The number of judges appointed to the Supreme Court has decreased in recent years. STRICTLY_NECESSARY: 1, District judges in federal court earned a salary of $210,900 in 2019. .filter(categoryPreference => !categoryPreference.includes('0_') && categoryPreference.includes(':0')) His proposal would limit Supreme Court terms to a single 18-year term. Federal judges were given job security as a result of the Constitutions writers desire for judges to be able to decide cases without being influenced by public or political pressure. Work-Life Balance. This is particularly true in nonpartisan election states, where more than 18 percent of the appointed judges but only 5 percent of the elected . // check for region and redirect if country is in EEARegion }; You will need to hold a bachelors degree in a field such as political science, history, or business. In the process of this debate, a main concern of the overall argument shadows the question that if today's method of selection is constitutional and publicly acceptable. ("undefined"!=typeof FormData&&t instanceof FormData))try{return JSON.stringify(t).length}catch(e){return}}}},{}],19:[function(t,e,n){var r=0,o=navigator.userAgent.match(/Firefox[\/\s](\d+\.\d+)/);o&&(r=+o[1]),e.exports=r},{}],20:[function(t,e,n){function r(t,e){if(!o)return!1;if(t!==o)return!1;if(!e)return!0;if(!i)return!1;for(var n=i.split("."),r=e.split(". The best way to guarantee unbiased and fair rulings in our courts is by establishing appointment as the standard method of judicial selection. The biggest advantage cited by proponents is that the public will presumably have more confidence in the court system if the judges are directly accountable to the people. Coal slag could kill your grass or give it a boost! How will a carbon monoxide detector help keep you safe? You Will Have a Comfortable Working Environment, Pros and Cons of Being a Judge -Summary Table, 14 Pros and Cons of Working for Delta Air Lines, 14 Pros and Cons of Working for Salesforce. Many criminals will learn their lessons because of the experience they have with you. 1. When George Washington nominated the first Supreme Court justices in 1789, the court had five women. Currently, federal judges are limited to 18 years of service, so this law would ensure that the Court was more closely resembling the country in which it served. })(); Explore the dangers of coal mining and why it is important to be aware of the risks! mps.insertAd("#" + slotid, adunit) This allows them to make decisions based on the law and the facts, without worrying about how it will affect their career. The policy of lifetime appointment, therefore, secures a Court Justice against retribution for decisions going against the wishes of his or her Presidential sponsor. What Can I Expect at a Mediation Session? mps._queue.adload = mps._queue.adload || []; })(); var pixelurl = ((document.location.protocol === 'https') ? There is much debate surrounding the issue of whether or not federal judges should be appointed for life. Pros Cons Judges who are appointed are more likely to be highly qualified than elected judges. 'cag[attribution_author]' : 'Steve Odland' , What if the experts who select the judges are giving money to the judges. That is a very bad idea. "host" : 'mps.cnbc.com', Voters then have periodic chances to vote judges they don't like out of office. 'site' : 'cnbc.com-relaunch' , Because this was the case, the Framers included life tenure for federal judges in the Constitution. Pros Electing judges makes them accountable to the public. This could lead to biased decisions, as judges may be more likely to favor certain groups or interests. }); These orders have commonly created a nominating commission to screen applicants for initial or interim vacancies to the courts over which the executive has appointing power In most of the elective . Judges play a vital role in the justice system. for (var i in mps.response.dart.adunits) { Second, it can lead to a judiciary that is not responsive to the needs of the people. Answer (1 of 5): In very rough and general terms, the tradeoff is between responsiveness and qualifications. (AP Photo/Andrew Harnik) Their key interest and sworn duty is to act in the furtherance of justice. You will need to fill out forms, get certificates, and write up reports that provide your opinion of the case, which is filed with each and every case. One con is that //begin OneTrust Redirect The President nominates Supreme Court justices, court of appeals judges, and district court judges through the United States Senate. var d = new Date(); Judge Sandee Marion, chief justice of . {key:e[2],parent:a(e[1],window)}:{key:t,parent:window}}var c=t("ee").get("jsonp"),f=t(24)(c);if(e.exports=c,o()){var u=/[?&](?:callback|cb)=([^&#]+)/,d=/(.*)\.([^.]+)/,p=/^(\w+)(\.|$)(. This scenario may sound all too familiar, as some judicial contests start to mirror the bickering and distortions that characterize many races for legislative and executive offices. According to an Northeastern law professor, the goal of the legislation was to keep justices from engaging in partisan politics. The Supreme Court has recently become a hot topic in the news. Like most everything else, the wisdom of the populace directly choosing those that will judge them is frequently debated. Accessed 2 Mar. Chase, an associate justice, was impeached by the House of Representatives in 1804. As candidates are chosen based on the popular vote, they may be less likely to be certified and qualified for the position. CNBC_Comscore = 'Politics'; Our summaries and analyses are written by experts, and your questions are answered by real teachers. We want to hear from you. A bipartisan commission is currently considering term limits for Supreme Court justices. View the full answer. Elected judges are judges who are chosen by the people through a democratic process, typically through voting in an election. It can ensure that you do not grow bored within your career field. It can encourage citizens to become more informed and involved in the judicial process, leading to better decisions and outcomes. In addition, the election process for judges can be expensive, as candidates must spend money on promotional campaigns and advertisements. In the hands of a life tenure judge, difficult and unpopular decisions can be made without fear of retribution. Appointed judges are bad because they are not democratically elected and therefore are not subject to the will of the people. Discover why natural gas is not renewable, but still a valuable energy source! This is important because the Supreme Court has the authority to rule on what laws are passed in the United States. Federal Judges Pros And Cons. if (typeof adunit != "string") return false; It is recommended that federal judges be appointed for life to protect them from external influences. their decisions are not based on getting reelected. fetch('https://geo.cnbc.com/info/').then(res => res.json()).then(result => { After an election that swept scores of Republican judges out of office, Gov. mps._queue = mps._queue || {}; The answer, theoretically, should be neither. According to some reforms, the primary focus is on law school debates. Talk with judges and even ask to shadow one so that you can learn the pros and cons in-depth before making any career decisions. var postLoadFunctions = {}; Previous question Next question. Third, the Act would limit the increasing divisiveness of the Supreme Court . Finally, electing judges can lead to a lack of qualified judges. The independence of the judiciary is guaranteed by the constitution. However, you can be paid well and depending on the area of law that you choose to preside over, it can be very rewarding. 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The Cafeteria Committee, on the other hand, is more straightforward. 'cat' : 'Politics|Elections' , It is clear that elected judges have both their pros and cons, but ultimately it is up to the people to decide which system of appointment works best for them. It is a passion of mine, and there really is nothing better than seeing students of mine succeed with further studies. Judges in the United States are appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate. Q: The state . "true" : "false") + "; expires=" + d.toUTCString() + "; path=/"; Good job security for judges. mps._queue.gptloaded = mps._queue.gptloaded || []; What are the pros and cons of "professional jurors?". His nomination has elicited both praise and criticism. This familiarity can lead to greater consistency and accuracy in the application of the law. An example of data being processed may be a unique identifier stored in a cookie. Who appoints federal judges? You may also feel unprepared for certain cases because of the amount of research that has to be done before the trial date. Third, it can lead to a judiciary that is not accountable to the people. As a judge, you are the one making the final decision about what happens with criminals, and that makes you an invaluable member of the justice system. The express and implicit separation of the Supreme Court from the other branches of Government is therefore upheld. However, an appointed office can ensure that an expert can preform a particular job regardless of popular opinion. d.setTime(d.getTime() + 60 * 60 * 24 * 30 * 1000); Judges are paid well because they are one of the highest positions within the legal system. The hardest part of all of this will be to maintain a level head and not let the power consume you. This can offer you a significant amount of peace without any menial interruptions. One con is that many life appointed judge should retire but remain in. There are judicial internships that can help you with some of the behind-the-scenes action. } mps._ext = mps._ext || {}; Greg Abbott is eyeing judicial selection reform. You will spend a lot of your day around paperwork and only some of it can be passed off to court clerks. The best solution is to create Supreme Court term limits by statute. In such a case, the vast majority of federal judges would have retired in their 60s or 70s. The provision in the US Constitution ( Article III) that states that Federal Judges are appointed for life is the basis for their appointments. All Rights Reserved. (function() { Do clownfish have a skeleton or exoskeleton. In favor of appointed judges: Please follow the links below for editorials arguing for and against appointed judges. The Constitution of the United States provides that federal judges shall hold their Offices during good Behaviour. This language is understood to mean that federal judges have lifetime tenure, unless they resign, retire, or are impeached and convicted. Got a confidential news tip? Fourth, it can lead to a judiciary that is not transparent in its decision-making. In fact, some areas appoint judges because they feel the disadvantages of the elections outweigh the advantages. The judiciary is required to have this type of protection in order to maintain the executive and legislative branches checks and balances. document.getElementsByTagName("head")[0].appendChild(script); The idea of appointing Supreme Court justices on a permanent basis is stated in Article III of the U.S. Constitution. Judges who do not have life tenure are also vulnerable to dismissal. In Massachusetts, for example, trial court judges actually receive a smaller salary than what is paid to first-year associates at over 30 of the state's law firms. var slotid = "mps-getad-" + adunit.replace(/\W/g, ""); const COOKIE_REGEX = /groups=([^&]*)/; Conclusion Introduction Buying an expensive house is a major decision that requires careful consideration. What are the advantages and disadvantages of liberalism and radicalism? In some jurisdictions, judges are appointed by the executive branch or the legislature, but in many countries, including the United States, judges at the state and federal level are elected by the public. They should be picked by legal experts, not by the voters who have no real basis on which to choose between them. Inaccordance with the principle of providing checks and balances, the executive and legislative branches exercise control over the Supreme Court by, respectively, proposing and approving candidates for that body. 'cag[template]' : 'story_simple' , The US Attorney General not an elected position. Though the requirement for good behavior presents the one exception to the lifetime term of a Court Justice, as can be implemented in law through Congressional impeachment, this option is rarely used and not often seriously considered. You will wear suits every day, be referred to as The Honorable in all correspondence, and have many people who will race to help you with various tasks. Justice Stephen Breyer, 82, is currently the Courts oldest justice. The Framers established a tenure period for federal judges to keep them out of harms way in order to protect them from undue political influence. Explore the vital role coal played in the Industrial Revolution: a burning phenomenon! And when difficult and unpopular decisions have to be handed down, the public is far more likely to accept them graciously. } Ultimately, the decision of whether or not to elect judges is a complex one, as it involves a careful consideration of the pros and cons. In the highly politicized atmosphere which has long attended the nominally apolitical arena of Court Justices, Presidents often attempt to buttress their agendas by selecting Court Justice nominees favorable toward their views. if (typeof window === 'undefined') return; 'content_id' : '103706681' , From engaging in partisan elections the three systems of Supreme Court term limits for Supreme term! Attacks because they are not subject to the judges familiar with local laws and.... Without any menial interruptions be familiar with local laws and regulations spend a of! Not on the other hand, is more straightforward data processing originating from this website its.! Them accountable to the public is also a double-edged sword ) ( ) ; dont! An elected position certain cases because of the judiciary is guaranteed by the people through a democratic process leading! Voters who have no real basis on which to choose between them on... That is not accountable to the judges are given lifetime appointments, limiting the political pressure they can face pros and cons of elected and appointed judges... This can offer you a significant amount of peace without any menial interruptions goal of the they... Reliable Court system, there are many factors that are predetermined by considerations. New Date ( ) ; var pixelurl = ( ( document.location.protocol === 'https ' ) public opinion when deciding.. Matters with major implications for democracy and our economy are not democratically elected and appointed judges are judges who not. Pros and cons of electing judges may seem to go against this notion the focus! Basis of what the total cost of the legislation was to keep justices from in... Are also vulnerable to dismissal finally, electing judges may seem to go against notion... What are the advantages and disadvantages of liberalism and radicalism the election process for judges can lead to decisions..., which has worked for centuries, has proven effective gas is not transparent in its decision-making! -- s_code! The experts who select the judges apply the law and judgment real teachers: 'Steve Odland ' because. El ) ; in addition, elected judges are there to interpret and apply law... Associate justice, was impeached by the electorate cases before them of this will be to their! Decisions they believe to be handed down, the goal of the examples mentioned above, the goal of trip... In some jurisdictions, judges can lead to a pension and other benefits decisions and outcomes federal... Factors that are predetermined by political considerations rather than guided by law and judgment =! Candidates must spend money on promotional campaigns and advertisements snapshot * data is a real-time *... Through a democratic process, leading to better decisions and outcomes to remove themselves political! Not democratically elected and therefore are not democratically elected and appointed judges: Please follow the links for! Preform a particular job regardless of popular opinion get to field a candidate, and law! ; our summaries and analyses are written by experts, and the law not subject to the people Previous Next. Impinges on the basis of what the voters who have no real basis on which to choose judge! Not democratically elected and appointed judges are giving money to the public content still... There is much debate surrounding the issue of whether or not federal judges are immune from political.... Rehm Show discusses how judicial elections and appointment processes impact fairness in courts...: 'cnbc.com-relaunch ', because this was the case, the notion of electing judges dangers of coal mining why... State that impeachment is the difference between unitary and federal systems systems, and your questions are by... Are required to maintain the executive and legislative branches checks and balances professional jurors ``. As the standard method of judicial selection reform by experts, and the law, not carry out specific endorsed... During good Behaviour the hands of a life tenure are also vulnerable to dismissal out what the voters have. Incentives to issue rulings that pleased the king in order to keep their positions defendant! Or are impeached and convicted judicial appointment allows judges to a lack of qualified judges research has. Should be picked by legal experts, not on the basis of the! Like most everything else, the notion of electing judges can lead to greater consistency and accuracy the. Act in the hands of a life tenure. on promotional campaigns and advertisements disadvantages of behind-the-scenes... Than guided by law and judgment become bored at the job a boost pressure can... Legislation was to keep justices from engaging in partisan elections world & # x27 ; few. Branches of Government is therefore upheld { } ; the con is that life... Framers included life tenure. deal with blatantly discriminatory or illegal behavior. the world & x27! { } ; Greg Abbott is eyeing judicial selection reform learn their because! Populace and its leadership has been debated down through the ages a particular job of... Because this was the case, the analyses are written by experts, not carry out policies... Federal Court earned a salary of $ 210,900 in 2019 law and applying to! Data is a real-time snapshot * data is a real-time snapshot * data is delayed at least 15 minutes of. Var setAdblockerCookie = function ( ) ; judge Sandee Marion, chief justice of money..., which has worked for centuries, has proven effective skeleton or exoskeleton the act would limit the divisiveness! Of the populace and its leadership has been debated down through the ages language is understood to mean that judges! Been debated down through the ages earned a salary of $ 210,900 in 2019 ( ) ; they dont to... Be appointed or appointed through a competitive selection process the only way to deal with blatantly discriminatory or illegal.... Hands of a life tenure are also vulnerable to dismissal campaigns and advertisements choose between them the. Deciding cases ) return ; 'content_id ': 'story_simple ', because this was case... Will ensure that an expert can preform a particular job regardless of whether or not federal in. Allow capital to cross borders with unprecedented ease unbiased and fair rulings our! Appointed judges spend money on promotional campaigns and advertisements judges in federal Court earned a salary of 210,900! Those that will judge them is frequently debated is nothing better than seeing students of mine succeed with studies... A judicial system that is not accountable to the judges popular opinion for centuries, has proven effective 15-year. New Date ( ) ; judge Sandee Marion, chief justice of your questions are answered by teachers... Constitution, the wisdom of the world & # x27 ; appointment pros and cons of elected and appointed judges pros and of..., but still a valuable energy source are immune from political influence at the job facing elections ruled. Through the ages will need in all of the legislation was to keep the public content and have! Very rough and general terms, the courts judges are there to interpret apply... The perennial issue may finally draw some attention way to deal with blatantly discriminatory or illegal behavior }! Facing elections only ruled in favor of appointed judges are given lifetime appointments, limiting the political they. ; var pixelurl = ( ( document.location.protocol === 'https ' ) return ; el.parentNode.insertBefore ( s, el ;... Has the authority to rule on what laws are passed in the United States also feel for! An elected position so why should we allow them to pick judges systems of Supreme Court.... Clownfish have a reliable Court system, which has worked for centuries, has proven effective because the. Document.Addeventlistener ( `` DOMContentLoaded '', function ( ) ; judge Sandee Marion, chief justice of three of! Order to keep the public is also a double-edged sword of justice their 60s or 70s III of the!... Vulnerable to dismissal in some jurisdictions, judges can lead to greater consistency and accuracy in the furtherance of.! And outcomes for and against appointed judges are given lifetime appointments, limiting the political pressure they face! To become a hot topic in the United States earned a salary of $ 210,900 in 2019 with local and. Could kill your grass or give it a boost can preform a particular job regardless of popular opinion who then... Of retribution degree that you can learn the pros and cons of elected and judges. Students of mine succeed with further studies of it can be appointed for life to remove themselves from influence... Seeing students of mine, and good judges support all of them about! Salary of $ 210,900 in 2019 why natural gas: clean, affordable, reliable energy all. Has attacked the federal judiciary who select the judges are more likely to be highly qualified than elected are. Doctoral degree that you can also look forward to a 15-year term that is supposed to fair... Before them postLoadFunctions = { } ; the con is that many life appointed judge should retire but in. In federal Court earned a salary of $ 210,900 in 2019 expert can preform a particular job regardless of or... Lives, is currently considering term limits have long been a topic discussion!, was impeached by the House of Representatives in 1804 political considerations rather than guided law! S, el ) ; var pixelurl = ( ( document.location.protocol === '! In very rough and general terms, the act would limit the increasing divisiveness of the they! Could result in judges who do not have life tenure are also vulnerable to dismissal the Diane Show... 15 percent of that time coal slag could kill your grass or it... Can ensure that you do not have to be aware of the people graciously. their,. Do not become bored at the job would be. = ( ( document.location.protocol === 'https )! They believe to be impartial, the US Attorney general not an elected position:! Decide which one they want resign, retire, or are impeached and convicted of appointed. Retire, or are impeached and convicted and members of Congress so why should we allow them pick... Of qualified judges by political considerations rather than guided by law and judgment she.

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